Curricular Outcomes

Ability-Based Outcomes for the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Introduction

The mission of pharmacy practice is to enable people to use medications safely and with optimal health benefits. This mission is achieved by caring, competent and ethical pharmacists who are able to think critically and creatively to identify and resolve health and medication use problems. Pharmacists also take responsibility for managing systems and practices that contribute to the design, implementation and monitoring of rational pharmacotherapy to address defined therapeutic goals with optimal safety and health outcomes. This patient-oriented approach to practice is sometimes referred to as pharmaceutical care.

The mission of the UNC Doctor of Pharmacy program is to prepare graduates to enter a general practice of pharmacy in which they may further develop and refine their ability

contribute positively to the health and well-being of their communities
manage and advance their own professional practices and
provide leadership in advancing the standard of health care and the profession of pharmacy.

To achieve this mission, doctor of pharmacy candidates must develop appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors. To that end, the UNC School of Pharmacy is committed to assuring that doctor of pharmacy graduates achieve competence in the ability outcome areas set forth by the Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education (ACPE)¹and the Center for the Advancement of Pharmaceutical Education (CAPE) Educational Outcomes2. These learning outcomes provide an organizing structure around which to frame discussions of curriculum design, implementation and assessment.

Patient Care: Provide patient care in cooperation with patients, prescribers, and other members of an interprofessional health care team, based upon sound therapeutic principles and evidence-based data, taking into account relevant legal, ethical, social, cultural, economic, and professional issues; emerging technologies, and evolving biomedical, social, behavioral, administrative, and clinical sciences that may impact the safety and therapeutic outcomes of medication use.

Systems Management: Manage and use resources of the health care system, in cooperation with patients, prescribers, other health care providers, and administrative and supportive personnel, to promote health; to provide, assess, and coordinate safe, accurate, and time-sensitive medication distribution; and to improve the safety and therapeutic outcomes of medication use.

Public Health: Promote health improvement, wellness, and disease prevention in cooperation with patients, communities, at-risk populations, and other members of the inter-professional team of health care providers by developing and assuring the availability of effective, quality health promotion and disease prevention services and participating in the development and implementation of public health policy.

This document further articulates nine ability outcomes and related competencies that expand upon these three professional outcome areas and incorporate additional recommendations from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP)^2,3,the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy^4,5, The American Pharmacists’ Association⁶, the American Society for Health-Systems Pharmacists⁷, the Institute of Medicine⁸, the International Medical Informatics Association⁹, other professional organizations^10-13, and schools and colleges of pharmacy^14,15.

Several characteristics of the learning outcomes articulated in this document are noteworthy.

1. These are ability-based outcomes, meaning they describe what students will be able to do as a result of their education in the UNC Doctor of Pharmacy program. Rather than explicitly defining knowledge, skills or attitudes to be addressed through the curriculum, these statements describe what graduates will be able to do as a result of the knowledge, skills and attitudes they acquire through the program.

2. The nine outcomes described here are program-level outcomes, reflecting desired student abilities upon completion of the curriculum and entry into a pharmacy practice. These are achieved as a result of a well coordinated curriculum of courses and experiential learning activities that are clearly connected to the program outcomes. At any given point in the curriculum, students may achieve each outcome at low, intermediate, or advanced competency levels, or not at all. Program-level outcomes are most likely to be achieved at a professional entry level of competence when each course and learning experience defines and addresses relevant learning outcomes and objectives, and articulates how these are related to the program outcomes. This document begins to articulate components of each program outcome. Additional efforts will be necessary to develop related division, course, and activity-level outcomes and objectives.

3. The outcome statements do not exhaustively describe all possible learning outcomes that might be achieved through the doctor of pharmacy program and are not intended to unduly restrict the depth or breadth of the curriculum. They do, however, describe those outcomes for which the School commits to delivering an organized course of study, systematically collecting student achievement and other assessment data, and applying assessment findings to foster continuous curricular improvement. These outcomes provide a solid basis, throughout the professional curriculum, for the development of

student learning outcomes and competencies for courses and professional experiences
curricular content and sequence
teaching and learning strategies and methods, including those necessary to develop critical thinking and life-long learning skills necessary to maintain professional competence in a changing professional environment
strategies and methods for student and program assessment and evaluation

The articulation and application of ability outcomes and related activities are dynamic processes. It is anticipated and desirable that both the content and language of this document will continue to evolve as we gain experience in this area.

4. These outcome statements provide a foundation around which to develop a curriculum map to explicitly identify the connections between course and experiential learning objectives and program level outcomes. This map can be used to visualize where content related to each outcome is addressed in the curriculum, what is being taught, how it is being taught and assessed, and the level at which students achieve the outcome.

5. Like most fields of study, education has its own vocabulary, sometimes with ill-defined or conflicting use of terms. To address this issue, this document includes a glossary of terms to help foster a common understanding and productive communication among faculty regarding curriculum, instruction and assessment.

6. This document assumes that a professional standard of excellence applies to each of the outcomes defined herein. Thus, modifiers such as excellent, effective, appropriate, high quality are used sparingly throughout the document.

Desired Ability Outcomes for the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

1. Provide patient-centered care: Design, implement, monitor, evaluate, adjust and accept professional responsibility for patient-specific, evidence-based care to promote safe and optimal pharmacotherapy outcomes.

Outcome		Example Components
1.1. Gather and organize essential patient information		review and interpret medical / medication records, including laboratory results conduct a patient health interview and comprehensive medication review conduct relevant patient / physical assessment consult with other health care professionals respect and protect the confidentiality of patients and patient information

1.2. Identify and prioritize medication-related problems		assess patient history, signs, symptoms, medication use and adherence to therapy identify patient-specific factors (medical, genetic, behavioral / psychosocial factors, health literacy, cultural) relevant to access, adherence or response to drug therapy identify untreated medical indications for drug therapy; suboptimal drug therapy outcomes; therapeutic duplications, contraindications, warnings, or precautions; drug therapy without known indication identify and describe the mechanisms of adverse drug reactions and events, including side effects, allergies, iatrogenic / drug-induced illness or drug interactions Develop a complete medical and drug therapy problem list Assess each identified problem Use relative priority to direct development of a pharmacotherapeutic plan

1.3. Formulate evidence-based, patient-specific medication treatment plans		define therapeutic goals and endpoints for each identified problem retrieve, analyze, interpret and apply relevant disease and/or drug literature identify evidence-based therapeutic alternatives select, recommend, initiate or modify therapeutic agents, dosage regimens, and dosage forms, delivery systems and routes of administration by integrating the best research evidence with scientific knowledge (pharmacologic, physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, population kinetics) and knowledge of patient-specific factors (pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, patient values and preferences) prospectively recognize and manage allergies, potential adverse drug reactions, or drug interactions consider social, economic, and cultural factors that influence patient’s perspective on health, illness, and medication use develop strategies to overcome treatment access and patient adherence barriers develop a patient follow-up and monitoring plan

1.4. Prepare, dispense, and administer medications to promote safe and effective medication use*		read and interpret written prescriptions and medication orders receive and transcribe verbal prescriptions and medication orders evaluate whether or not a prescription or medication order should be filled and select an appropriate course of action when it cannot or should not be filled perform calculations required to formulate, prepare or administer medications* apply knowledge of drug products, dosage forms, and delivery systems to ensure product stability and integrity; package and/or store products appropriately* use good compounding practices and proper quality control procedures to compound extemporaneous preparations use appropriate aseptic and sterilization techniques to prepare sterile dosage forms apply knowledge of drug products, dosage forms, and delivery systems to evaluate stability and compatibilities of sterile formulations prepare, package and label medications consistent with state and federal legal requirements and quality assurance guidelines** * See NAPLEX blueprint for specific, related competencies ** See NAPLEX MPJE competency statements for specific, related competencies

1.5. Assist the patient with implementation of treatment plans		communicate recommendations to the patient and other health providers in a manner that engenders a team approach to care recommend, provide, and educate patients regarding the use of medication administration and adherence aids, self-monitoring devices, non-prescription medications, nutritional supplements, and/or other health-related products provide clear and accurate verbal counseling and education to patients or their representatives to enhance patient understanding regarding administration, storage, handling and disposal of prescription medications recognition and management of adverse drug effects selection and use of non-prescription medications, monitoring devices, or other health-related products disease management, preventive care, and lifestyle modifications strategies to overcome barriers to health care access or adherence to therapy

1.6. Monitor, evaluate patient response to and modify pharmacotherapy		gather relevant information from patients and/or other health providers assess therapeutic effectiveness and progress toward therapeutic goals assess medication use safety and impact of treatment on patient quality of life modify the therapeutic plan in response to medication-related problems identified

1.7. Document patient care interventions		document patient care activities and their outcomes within the practice communicate essential information to patients’ other primary care providers maintain patient records and conduct related correspondence in accordance with state and federal legal regulations; institutional policies; and ethical, social, economic, and professional guidelines, assuring security and confidentiality of patient information**

2. Provide population-based care: Design, develop, implement, monitor, and evaluate population-specific, evidence-based pharmaceutical care services (disease management, medication therapy management and related policies and protocols.

Outcome		Example Components
2.1. Assess the need for population-based pharmaceutical care services		consult with appropriate health care providers and organizations, patients / population members, and community groups access, interpret and apply epidemiologic and pharmacoeconomic data relevant to common diseases and their management

2.2. Participate in the development and implementation of population-based pharmaceutical care services		develop and apply medication use criteria and outcome indicators identify and apply risk reduction strategies conduct, analyze and apply findings from medication use reviews develop disease and medication therapy management / medication reconciliation guidelines, protocols and practice agreements in collaboration with prescribers and other health professionals integrate disease management and medication therapy management services into the practice in accordance with state and federal legal regulations, institutional policies, ethical, social, economic, and professional guidelines** analyze and apply relevant socioeconomic principles, research processes, quality assurance strategies, and patient- and community-specific data to continually assess quality and cost-effectiveness of patient and community care services in terms of structure, process, and outcomes; modify processes accordingly

2.3. Participate in the development of drug use policy and pharmacy benefits		access patient- and population-specific literature and data related to drug use outcomes, economics and quality of life measures interpret patient- and population-specific literature and data related to drug use outcomes, economics and quality of life measures apply patient- and population-specific literature, data, quality assurance strategies, and research processes to formulate and recommend drug use policies or pharmacy benefits

2.4. Assess the continuing need for pharmaceutical care services		collect and monitor data related to the therapeutic and economic the effectiveness of services assess data to determine the need to continue, discontinue or modify services

3. Manage medication use systems that promote safe, accurate and timely distribution of medications and related devices.

Outcome

Example Components

3.1. Participate in the development, implementation, and/or evaluation of practices that assure safe, accurate and time-sensitive medication distribution

3.2. Participate in the development, implementation, and/or evaluation of systems to identify and report medication errors and adverse drug events

3.3. Access, interpret and apply health and drug use policy

3.4. Access, interpret and apply pharmacy benefit plans

3.5. Participate in the management of formulary, purchasing and inventory control systems

3.6. Communicate and collaborate with patients, prescribers, professional colleagues, and support and administrative personnel to identify and resolve problems related to medication distribution and use

3.7. Operate and manage medication use systems, policies, procedures and records in accordance with state and federal legal regulations, institutional policies, ethical, social, economic, and professional guidelines*

apply knowledge of physical and chemical principles related to drugs and drug products to appropriate storage and handling of those products
design and apply workspaces and systematic work-flow processes to optimize accuracy and efficiency of medication distribution and minimize errors
identify and describe common medication errors, adverse events and their causes
identify institutional, state and national systems / forms for reporting medication errors and adverse drug events
accurately complete forms / document identified problems

4. Develop and manage a successful pharmacy practice

Outcome

Example Components

4.1. Manage human, physical and financial resources to support a successful practice

4.2. Develop and negotiate collaborative practice agreements

4.3. Develop strategies and negotiate plans for compensation for patient care services

4.4. Effectively market patient care services

4.5. Design workspaces and workflow that promote safe medication dispensing and confidential patient counseling and education

4.6. Identify and implement cost-effective patient care and resource management practices that do not compromise quality of care

4.7. Evaluate the financial viability of a practice or service

4.8. Contribute to human resource practices that promote effectiveness, efficiency, cost-effectiveness and workplace satisfaction for professional and technical staff

4.9. Communicate and collaborate with patients, other health providers, professional colleagues, and administrative and supportive personnel to engender a team approach to resource management

4.10. Manage resources in accordance with state and federal legal regulations; institutional policies; and ethical, social, economic, and professional guideline

Apply knowledge of business and economic principles
Apply knowledge of human resource manage practices
Apply knowledge of basic marketing and advertising principles
Apply knowledge of institutional policies and state and federal regulations related to business and human resource practices
Compare and contrast legal, ethical, and moral issues

5. Manage drug and health information, informatics, and other technologies to improve patient care and management of the practice.

Outcome

Example Components

5.1. Access relevant print or electronic information and data

5.2. Gather, summarize, and organize information from lay, technical, scientific and clinical publications and patient records

5.3. Interpret and evaluate the suitability, accuracy, and reliability of information from the primary literature (scientific, clinical, pharmacoeconomic and epidemiologic studies)

5.4. Obtain, appraise and apply information from secondary drug and health resources

5.5. Communicate health and drug-related information to patients, professional colleagues, other health professionals and community groups in an understandable and useful fashion, including patient-specific drug use information, medication therapy and disease management information, disease detection and prevention information, and poison control and treatment information.

5.6. Define and apply terminology related to health care informatics*

5.7. Summarize and apply reasons for systematic processing of data, information and knowledge in health care and the benefits and current constraints in using information and communication technology in health care.*

5.8. Assess and manage the use of electronic technologies to

access and manage scientific / clinical information and data
document and manage patient care and practice management records
support interpersonal and/or professional communication
support education of patients, families, self and professional associates
support safe and effective drug distribution

5.9. Manage information, informatics, and other technologies in accordance with state and federal legal regulations; institutional policies; and ethical, social, economic, and professional guidelines

identify key data and concepts
summarize information in a concise and organized fashion
summarize and evaluate the adequacy of experimental design and methodologies, statistical tests and parameters, findings and conclusions
demonstrate ability to use word processing, publishing, presentation software, and data-base software; internet resources, e-mail, PDAs, discussion boards, instant messaging
describe uses, benefits and limitations of robotics, counting devices, automated refill systems
identify and apply institutional policies and state and federal regulations related to the electronic storage and communication of data
describe and apply regulations related to copyright and intellectual property

6. Promote Public Health: Assure the availability of pharmacy-based services and contribute to the development of health policies that promote optimal health

Outcome

Example Components

6.1. Access, analyze and apply population-specific (sociologic, epidemiologic and pharmacoeconomic) data to determine the needs of a target population relative to health promotion and disease prevention or detection.

6.2. Access, analyze and apply relevant educational strategies, quality assurance and research processes.

6.3. Select, develop, implement and evaluate strategies and services to prevent or detect disease in a target population including, but not limited to,

screening and referral services (disease detection and advising patients / patient groups on the need for further medical evaluation).
immunization administration
emergency response and disaster preparedness

6.4. Educate the public and professional associates regarding health and wellness; treatment and prevention of diseases and medical conditions; and use of medications, medical devices, natural products and nutritional supplements.

6.5. Communicate and collaborate with state and local health care authorities, policy makers and practitioners, including local and state health departments and boards of health, and members of the community to engender a team approach to identifying and addressing local and regional health care problems (including environmental hazard and emergency preparedness needs) *

6.6. Integrate health promotion and disease prevention services into the practice consistent with available resources and in accordance with state and federal legal regulations, institutional policies, ethical, social, economic, and professional guidelines.***

Describe and apply basic principles of epidemiology, sociology, and pharmacoeconomics
Identify, access and interpret sources of sociologic, pharmacoeconomic and epidemiologic data
Apply basic principles of patient education and communication
Apply knowledge of diseases / medical conditions; medications, natural and nutritional products; and medical devices

7. Communicate and Collaborate: Demonstrate effective communication and interpersonal skills resulting in effective information exchange and team work with patients and caregivers and professional associates.

Outcome		Example Components
7.1. Gather, organize, and summarize information		identify key data and concepts in lay, technical, scientific and clinical publications and patient records ask relevant questions in a logical and organized fashion use effective listening skills to gain trust and elicit information actively observe non-verbal cues

7.2. Communicate effectively through verbal expression		establish rapport , engage attention, and elicit information through use of effective verbal, nonverbal, explanatory, questioning and listening skills speak in a respectful manner (attentive, non-judgmental, non-threatening, compassionate, empathetic) express thoughts clearly, accurately concisely and in language appropriate to the situation and audience communicate complex concepts or ideas in simple, understandable ways discuss ideas and relay information in a logically organized and concise manner present ideas, proposals, or recommendations confidently and persuasively assess / validate understanding of the message communicated

7.3. Communicate effectively in writing or via multimedia		Compose complete and grammatically correct sentences Express ideas in language that is clear, concise and appropriate to the format and audience Communicate complex concepts or ideas in simple, understandable ways Present ideas / relay information in a logically organized manner and well-developed manner Structure written or visual materials to highlight critical content and relationships between ideas Adhere to legal and ethical standards (anti-plagiarism guidelines) for citing / crediting the intellectual property of others Adhere to legal and ethical standards for maintaining privacy and integrity of patient or institutional records

7.4. Create and sustain therapeutic and ethically sound relationships with patients		establish a rapport with patients and care givers demonstrate respect for a diverse patient population empower patients and their care givers to actively participate in therapeutic decision making and self-management communicate therapeutic recommendations clearly, respectfully, and persuasively to patients and their caregivers demonstrate empathy, provide emotional support for behavioral change, and provide physical comfort maintain patient confidentiality

7.5. Work effectively with others as a member or leader of an inter-disciplinary health care team or other professional group		establish a rapport with professional colleagues demonstrate a respect for a diverse work force and different approaches to patient care and problem-solving seek relevant information from and provide information to professional associates to solve patient care or practice management problems communicate information and therapeutic recommendations clearly, respectfully, and persuasively, using appropriate medical and technical terminology partner with other professionals and health providers to improve quality, continuity, and patient-centeredness of care make situation-appropriate referrals to other health care providers

8. Demonstrate professionalism: Demonstrate the attributes of a professional, including a commitment to and accountability for carrying out professional responsibilities; maintaining professional competence; and adhering to legal and ethical principles.

Outcome		Example Components
8.1. Demonstrate professional competence, critical thinking, and self-directed learning skills		Demonstrate professional knowledge and competence as well as the ability and commitment to continuous learning and professional development Demonstrate in-depth knowledge of and ability to apply basic scientific, clinical, and social science knowledge Demonstrate ability to self-reflect and self-assess one’s own knowledge and abilities Recognize self-limitations and areas for improvement; seek and accept constructive criticism, assistance and clarification Demonstrate initiative, accountability for and ability to actively and systematically self-direct one’s own learning and professional development. Manage time efficiently Assist professional colleagues with their learning and professional development

8.2. Demonstrate professional accountability, responsibility initiative and leadership		Adhere to established policies and procedures, including those related to attire and personal grooming Demonstrate initiative in patient care, practice management, professional development, and other professional responsibilities Prioritize responsibilities and use time and resources effectively and efficiently Reliably and dependably carry out duties; follow through with responsibilities Demonstrate a commitment to excellence in work habits and work products Accept personal accountability for actions and mistakes Actively participate in local, state, and national organizations in ways that visibly promote improved health outcomes and/or demonstrate the profession’s contributions to improved health outcomes

8.3. Adhere to the fundamental ethical principles of autonomy and dignity, beneficence, equality and justice, honesty and integrity, non-malfeasance, respect, and service		Respect the covenantal pharmacist-patient relationship and respond to personal and cultural differences with compassion, empathy and sensitivity Acknowledge and respect the values and abilities of professional colleagues Interact with patients and professional associates in a respectful and truthful manner and with conviction of conscience Provide patient care in an equitable, non-judgmental, and non-discriminatory manner, balancing the needs of patients and society. Prevent harm to other persons insofar as it lies within their power to do so without undue personal harm Gain informed consent Maintain patient confidentiality Provide for the needs of patients, communities, and society above personal self-interests Make and defend rational, ethical decisions within the context of personal and professional values.

9. Demonstrate critical thinking and problem solving skills.

Outcome

Example Components

9.1. Demonstrate reasoned and reflective consideration of evidence in a particular context to make a judgment.

9.2. Apply critical thinking skills, including investigation, application, analysis, creativity, synthesis and evaluation, to clinical or other professional problem-solving and decision making.

Judge the credibility of information sources
Identify and distinguish between evidence, conclusions, reasons, and assumptions
Develop and define a position on an issue
Define terms in a way appropriate for context
Ask appropriate clarifying questions
Plan experiments and judge experimental designs
Draw conclusions and/or judge the quality of an argument or conclusions, including the acceptability of its reasons, assumptions, and evidence
Seek to be well informed
Demonstrate open-mindedness and consideration of multiple points of view
Demonstrate creativity in solving complex or unusual problems

Glossary^{17 18 19}

Ability: The capacity to do something or perform successfully at a certain level in a given context. Abilities reflect an integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained from instructional, professional and life experiences. Achievement of abilities must be inferred (judged) from knowledge of both the performance and the context.

Professional Abilities: Abilities specifically related to the profession of pharmacy
General Abilities: Abilities desired as a result of educational experiences regardless of profession or discipline, such as communication, interpersonal, critical thinking, and ethical decision makings abilities.
Ability-based education: A planned sequence of student experiences designed to move students through stages in the continuum of developing professional and general abilities. Different methods of instruction and evaluation are used as appropriate to each level of professional growth, and the entire sequence is coordinated to produce a competent beginning practitioner. Note, some authors use this term synonymously with competency-based education.
Ability-based evaluation: Use of assessment techniques and decisions that align with the stages along the ability continuum. Novices are assessed with tests, beginners with simulations, and competent students with authentic assessments. Note, some authors use this term synonymously with competency-based evaluation.
Ability (competency or Novice-Expert continuum): Stages through which learners' progress as they become professionals. Stages are qualitatively distinct (not simply the accumulation of more knowledge or speed) and represent capacity to function effectively in more complex environments.

Note: The terms competency and ability are sometime used interchangeably. For our (UNC SOP) purposes, we prefer to think of competencies as components (knowledge, skills and/or behaviors) that culminate in achievement of ability outcomes.

Affective: Related to attitudes, beliefs, emotions, feelings or values.

Alignment: Process of linking content and performance standards to assessment, instruction and learning in classrooms.

Assessment: A systematic and continuous process that focuses on the collection and use of evidence to improve a program, or process or student learning¹⁶.

Involves making expectations explicit and public
Setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning quality
Systemically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches those expectations and standards; and
Using the resulting information to document, explain, and improved performance

Assessment plan: A document that details the assessment process within a school, college, program or institution. The plan should emerge from the mission of the institution and college and it should relate and align with the institutions plan and objectives.

Authentic Assessment: An assessment procedure that emphasizes the use of tasks and contextual settings like those in the real world. It measures whether students are able to perform in a real-world task the way professionals in the field would perform.

Attitude: A complex mental state involving beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions to act in certain ways (e.g. exhibit empathy)

Closing-the-loop: Using assessment results for program change and improvement.

Competencies: Statements that describe knowledge, skills and/or professional values needed to begin independent functioning / practice in a particular setting. In the educational setting these should be performed independently (demonstrated and assessed) in realistic settings. Note: The terms competency and ability are sometime used interchangeably. For our (UNC SOP) purposes, we prefer to think of competencies as components (knowledge, skills and/or behaviors) that culminate in achievement of ability outcomes.

Content Analysis: Research where one examines the patterns of symbolic meaning of text, audio, visual or other communication format. The focus is to identify common themes and highlight important concepts or issues in the data. In the assessment process, it can be used to further manage the data and begin to formulate appropriate impact questions.

Data: Numeric and non-numeric information and evidence that have been carefully gathered according to rules or established procedures.

Data audit: A procedure to determine what data have been gathered, how these data have been disseminated and how the information was used to improve relevant areas.

Direct assessment methods: Assessments that gather visible evidence indicative of how students perform on an outcome. Students demonstrate that they have achieved a learning objective or outcome.

Environmental variables: Refer to the learning or educational experiences provided within the context of educational programs.

Evaluation: The utilization of the data collected through assessment to facilitate judgments about quality and effectiveness.

Formative Assessment: An assessment which is used for improvement (individual or program) rather than for making final decisions or accountability. Its role is to provide information which can be used to make immediate modifications in teaching and learning and in the program.

Goals (learning or instructional) broad, generalized statements of what students will be know or able to do when they have completed some unit of instruction (curricular year, course, learning module, lecture sequence). Goals may be thought of as the destination or target to be reached, or "hit" and may be expressed in imprecise terms, using words like appreciates, grasps, knows, understands. Example: Recommend drug therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes.

lEO Model: Input-Environment-Outcome model created by Alexander Astin that can be used for impact assessment.

Informatics: The application of computer and statistical techniques to the management (gathering, manipulating, storing, retrieving and classifying) recorded information

Knowledge: acquired information necessary to perform specified functions (in our case, the information needed to perform the functions of an entry-level pharmacist)

Medication use system: the structure and processes through which medications are used, including prescribing, drug product selection and procurement, prescription / medication order processing, dispensing, medication administration, and monitoring of medication effects.

Mission: written description of the broadest and most fundamental purposes of an institution, program, or activity

Objectives (instructional or learning): Statements that describe specific, observable and measurable behaviors that will indicate whether students have achieved desired learning goals and outcomes. Well constructed objectives describe the student behavior (verb describing what the student will be able to d, the specific conditions (how/where/under what conditions (s)he will perform, and criteria (how well the student performs; level of mastery required). Example: Given a medical and medication history and current laboratory results, recommend an appropriate initial pharmacotherapy agent and regimen, including drug, dose and frequency of administration for a patient with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes.

Outcomes (educational): The end results or consequences associated with educational experiences (i.e., what the student should be able to do).

Ability-based outcomes: explicit statements describing what students will be able to do as a result of the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained from instructional experiences
Curricular or Program-level outcomes: explicit statements describing the abilities (knowledge, skills and attitudes) that students are expected develop through completion of a curriculum as a whole
Course-level outcomes: explicit statements describing the abilities (knowledge, skills and attitudes) that students develop as the result of a specific course.

Performance criteria: Describes what students must do to accomplish an outcome and also provide a basis for judging their performance.

Pharmaceutical Care:

Skill: the ability to perform a task, usually gained through experience and training

Cognitive Skill: Any mental activity associated with enhanced cognitive processing; thinking and learning skills (e.g. concentration, abstraction, attention, perception, analysis, comprehension, generalization, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, synthesis.
Psychomotor Skill: Of or relating to movement or muscular activity associated with mental processes, e.g. taking a blood pressure, preparing a sterile infusion solution.

Impact Assessment: Process in which you determine whether the assessment results in appropriate changes to what is being assessed.

Indirect methods: Assessments that gather reflections on student learning or capture students' perceptions of their educational experiences and associated learning gains.

Inputs: The initial qualities and characteristics each student brings into the program, many of which are collected during the recruitment and admissions process and typically maintained in student or institutional records.

Institutional effectiveness: the measure of what an institution actually achieves.

Objective: Describes discrete skills or bits of knowledge that are specific to a given instructional context.

Outcomes: The consequences or results associated with instructional experiences; the end results of institutional, program or curricular goals.

Outcome-based education: An approach to education in which decisions about the curriculum are driven by the exit learning outcomes that the students should display at the end of the course.

Performance Assessment: Assessments in which students demonstrate their knowledge and skills. It is a specific sample of ability under specific conditions.

Program Assessment (or Institutional Assessment): Uses the department, program or institutional as the unit of analysis. It can be qualitative, quantitative, formative or summative. Ideally this would be driven by the program/institution mission goals.

Qualitative assessment: Findings are verbal descriptions of what was discovered via observation methods.

Quantitative assessment: Findings are summarized with a number that can be analyzed statistically.

Reliability: The extent to which a test/instrument is dependable, stable and consistent when administered to the same individuals at different times. The instrument should yield similar results over time with similar populations in similar circumstances. It asks the question "Are the responses consistent over time?"

Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO): A taxonomy describing how learner performance and understanding for a subject grows in complexity. This taxonomy has five levels: prestructural, unistructural, multistructural, relational and extended abstract.

Summative: Assessments at the conclusion of a course or program. They are generally used for accountability purposes or to judge the value or worth of a program or course and are usually collected at or near the end of a program or course, as implied by the concept label.

Triangulation: The use of multiple assessment techniques to collect evidence to derive at the same/similar conclusions. An example of triangulation would be using surveys, interviews and observations.

Validity: The extent to which inferences made from assessment results are appropriate, meaningful, and useful in terms of the purpose of the assessment. The degree to which a test or other assessment measures what it is actually intended to measure. It asks the question: "Are you measuring what you intended?"

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14. Program-Level Ability-based Outcomes for Pharm.D. Education, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 2006.

15. Program Ability Statements, Doctor of Pharmacy Program, Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Pharmacy, 2006.

16. Palomba CA, Banta TW. Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing and Improving Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass Publishers; 1999.

17. Zlatic TD, Abilities-Based Assessment within Pharmacy Education: Preparing Students for Practice of Pharmaceutical Care. Journal of Pharmacy Teaching 1000:7:5-27

18. Chalmers DW and Glassman PA. A primer on competency-based education. Journal of Dental Education. 1997; 61 (651-656).

19. Anderson HM, Preface: A Methodological Series on Assessment. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 2005; 69 (1) Article 11.

20. Britton, Mark et. al. A Database-Driven Approach to Streamline the Curricular Mapping Process, AACP Annual Meeting, San Diego, California, July 22, 2006.

21. Ennis, RH. Critical Thinking Assessment, Theory into Practice, Vol 32, No 3, College of Education, The Ohio State University, 1993.

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Curricular Outcomes

Curricular Outcomes

Ability-Based Outcomes for the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

UNC Eshelman School of PharmacyThe University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Desired Ability Outcomes for the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

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Outcome

Example Components

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UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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